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Race is a socially constructed classification that subjectively categorizes individuals and communities into distinct clusters—racial groups—based on characteristics such as physical appearance (particularly skin color), ethnic background, ancestral heritage, cultural affiliation/history, and/or the social, economic, and political justifications of a society at a given period of time. Genetic scientists affirm that there is no biological basis for racial group categories. The concept of race, as we understand it today, has its roots in the history of exploration, colonialism, and the transatlantic slave trade.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, as European powers began exploring and colonizing other parts of the world, they encountered people with different physical characteristics and cultures. To justify the enslavement, colonization, and exploitation of these people, Europeans started categorizing humanity into different "races." They posited that certain races were naturally superior to others, assigning negative stereotypes and qualities to the races they deemed inferior.

These categorizations became a powerful tool for social control, maintaining power, and accumulating wealth. One of the most significant examples of this was the transatlantic slave trade, where Africans were dehumanized, enslaved, and deemed racially inferior by Europeans to justify their horrific treatment. The concept of race was further institutionalized through pseudoscientific practices like phrenology and eugenics during the 19th and early 20th centuries, falsely claiming that there were inherent biological and intellectual differences between races.

In Western societies, particularly in the United States, race has been coercively shaped as an ideological tool to institutionalize, socialize, and normalize racial hierarchies rooted in white supremacy. White supremacy refers to a system of oppression where white people establish and maintain political and economic dominance, conferring privileges upon themselves at the expense and detriment of other racial and ethnic groups. White supremacy is structured and perpetuated on ideological, institutional, interpersonal, and individual levels, ‘justified’ and reinforced through hierarchical and adaptive narratives of racial difference.

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White supremacy is the generative foundation of structural racial oppression and systemic racial inequities—the seeds of structural and systemic racism. Acclaimed journalist and author, Isabel Wilkerson describes white supremacy as ‘America’s enduring caste system'—“an artificial construction, a fixed and embedded ranking of human value that sets the presumed supremacy of one group against the presumed inferiority of other groups.”—whose ‘invisible scaffolding’ is propped up by ‘ancient rules and assumptions’.

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The tree model of systemic racism, inspired by the iceberg model used in systems dynamics

In the tree model of racism, inspired by the iceberg model used in systems dynamics, we can break down the components of racism into different elements, each contributing to the understanding of how racism manifests and perpetuates itself in society.

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Understanding racism as a tree emphasizes the interconnectedness of its various components, from the visible outcomes to the underlying beliefs and systems that perpetuate racial inequality. To dismantle racism, it is essential to address all levels of the tree, from changing individual attitudes and behaviors to transforming institutional structures and policies.

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Over time, the understanding of race as a biological determinant has been largely debunked by scientific consensus, which now recognizes race as a social construct with no inherent biological significance. However, the social, economic, and political implications of racial categorizations remain deeply embedded in societies around the world.

In the modern era, the composition of racial categories has evolved to reflect a broader understanding of human diversity and the complex interplay of ancestry, culture, and self-identification. In many countries, racial categories are often defined in censuses and surveys, and can change over time to reflect changing societal attitudes and patterns of self-identification. However, these categories continue to be imperfect and contested.

The United States stands as one of the most racially and ethnically diverse nations globally, with a rich history of varied individuals and communities contributing to the country's accomplishments. However, this diversity has not always been celebrated or respected. Despite the integral role of racial and ethnic diversity in shaping the nation, non-white people and communities in the United States have been subjected to systematic practices that undermine their humanity and right to exist in a society that claims to value "liberty and justice for all." The U.S. was founded on a paradox: while its Constitution upheld the ideals of freedom and equality, the economy of its Southern states was heavily dependent on the institution of slavery, which was justified through the concept of racial inferiority.

Even after the abolition of slavery with the 13th Amendment in 1865, racial segregation and discrimination persisted through Jim Crow laws, which enforced racial segregation in the United States until the mid-20th century. The United States has been marred by a long, evolving, and entrenched history of systemic racism, including the colonization and genocide of Indigenous people, the enslavement and disenfranchisement of Black people, and the exploitation and dehumanization of Latin American and Asian peoples. The term "Black, Indigenous, and People of Color" (BIPOC) encompasses marginalized and disadvantaged racial and ethnic groups in the United States, with a particular emphasis on Black and Indigenous communities, which have suffered the most from historical and contemporary impacts of systemic racism.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s aimed to end racial discrimination and segregation. Despite significant progress, systemic racism continues to pervade American society today, manifesting in disparities in education, healthcare, criminal justice, and wealth accumulation. These impacts are evidenced by systemic health disparities and inequities, highlighting the continued struggle for justice and equality for minority populations in a nation defined by its racial diversity.

Race should be recognized as a fluid and dynamic concept that shifts over time and differs across various cultures and societies. While physical characteristics may differ between different population groups, the broad racial group categories we use today do not have a strong basis in genetics. Rather, they are social categories that have been used historically for inclusion and exclusion, and to justify social inequality. Understanding this history is crucial for challenging racial stereotypes and biases, addressing systemic racism, and cultivating racial equity.

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